Air Deposition
The impacts of air deposition on coastal and marine waters are just beginning
to be understood. Air pollutants of concern include sulphur dioxide (SO2),
nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
(PAHs). Although industrial sources of these pollutants have been reduced
through federal regulation, sources such as automobile exhaust and long-range
transportation from other areas continue to contribute significant levels
to the Bay of Fundy region. In addition to human health (respiratory) problems,
these pollutants contribute to acidification and nutrient enrichment of
coastal waters. The use of local coal, which contains high levels of natural
mercury, in thermal generating stations may represent a significant source
of atmospheric mercury emissions in the region. Air pollution is currently
monitored by the Hunstman Marine Science Centre in New Brunswick as part
of Environment Canada's Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Network
(EMAN). The Quoddy
EMAN Site is the only marine coastal site on the East Coast and
one of five in the Atlantic.
Agriculture
Agricultural activity impacts the marine environment in many different ways.
Agricultural run-off containing animal waste, fertilizers, pesticides, and
other chemicals can lead to marine contamination
and an excess input of nutrients to coastal waters. Pathogens contained
in animal wastes may also make their way to the coastal waters and may result
in shellfish flat and swimming beach closures. Dyking, infilling, and the
construction of tidal barriers used to facilitate
the development of agricultural land have eliminated more than 80% of the
saltmarshes around the Bay of Fundy. (see
Eutrophication).
Aquaculture
Aquaculture is a relatively recent industry in the Bay of Fundy (first site
established in 1979) and is dominated by Atlantic salmon net-cage sites.
Although the industry is continually improving as technology and experience
improve, problems still occur. Some of the current issues associated with
salmon aquaculture include overstocking, overuse of certain sites, crowding
in certain locations, pests and disease such as infectious salmon anemia
and sea lice, waste fallout leading to anoxia, nutrient loading, and escapees.
For example, aquaculture escapees now far outnumber wild Atlantic salmon
in the Magaguadavic River fish ladder counts. Lobster fishermen are also
concerned about the use of chemical theraputants to which lobsters may be
susceptible. Despite these concerns, aquaculture is a very lucrative business,
pulling in over $2 billion dollars for New Brunswick last year. (see Rare
and Threatened Species - Fish)
Archaeology
With the gradual rise in sea level, archaeological sites that were on the
coast 5000 to 3500 years ago have probably long since been washed away.
Only a very few finds of this age have been made (primarily along rivers)
but no intact site has yet been properly excavated. Large shell middens
(garbage dumps) in coastal areas with good clam flats suggest that shellfish
were an important food for the Mi'kmaq 2000 years ago. Important archaeological
sites from the historic Mi'kmaq period include drawings carved into bedrock
known as petroglyphs. Other historic sites include early European settlements
and forts. Archaeological sites along the coastline are severely threatened
by coastal erosion. Unfortunately, there are very few resources to salvage
the sites before they wash away, and none for preventing the erosion.
Ballast Water Dumping
At present, there are no mandatory regulations for the discharge of ballast
water in the Bay of Fundy. However, national guidelines developed by Transport
Canada and the International Maritime Organization have been in effect since
September 2000. Generally, ships are asked to exchange ballast in open ocean
(greater than 2000 meters) if possible. Unfortunately, many ships do not
have such an opportunity because of safety concerns, such as storms at sea,
or because they never go into waters that depth (e.g., US traffic coming
up from the eastern seaboard into Saint John or Bayside). As a result, ships
sometimes release ballast water as they enter the Bay of Fundy. Currently,
ships are not required to report or record where they discharge their ballast.
Following the example of other Canadian ports, the Port of Saint John is
considering development of its own guidelines for ballast water exchange.
Ballast water dumping is a concern because of the potential for the introduction
and establishment of non-native and invasive species (see Introduced
Species).
Barriers to Rivers
Tidal barriers (dykes, causeways, dams and wharves) now obstruct 25 of the
44 major rivers around the Bay of Fundy, and there are indications that
this has altered sediment transport and other natural processes in many
areas. For example, it is suspected that barriers have contributed to changes
in the composition of intertidal muds, which have resulted in declines in
Corophium abundance. Construction of a causeway across the Avon River at
Windsor, Nova Scotia has resulted in the expansion of thick brown mud below
it, with pronounced shallowing of the estuary further downstream. The spinning
turbines of a power plant located on a causeway across the Annapolis River
kill or seriously injure large numbers of migrating fish each year. The
extent of fish mortality as a result of the spinning turbines is extremely
difficult to determine; however it is suspected to play a significant role
in a declining presence of old fish in the Annapolis River. In addition
to the problem of building barriers across rivers, some fishermen have expressed
concern about the potential effects of reopening causeways or removing dams.
In particular, there is concern about the impact of increased sedimentation
on the lobster fishery, as sediments previously trapped behind barriers
are released down river and into the Bay. (see Rare and
Threatened Species - Invertebrates)
Biodiversity
According to the UN Convention on Biological Diversity, biodiversity is
"the variability among all living organisms from all sources, including,
inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and ecological
complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems." In essence, biodiversity is a general
term to describe the diversity of habitats, species, and genetic material
that is found in any given area. The primary threat to biodiversity is considered
to be habitat loss. The second greatest threat is now considered by many
to be the introduction of non-indigenous species into sensitive ecosystems.
(see Introduced Species and Habitat
Degradation and Loss)
Bioinvasions (see Introduced Species)
Birds (see Migratory Birds)
Coastal Development
The extent and significance of impacts on shorelines and shallow coastal
waters from cumulative coastal developments is poorly understood. Activities
causing impacts include housing development, campsite and trailer park development,
wharf construction, and groin construction. If carried out improperly, development
may result in habitat destruction, pollution, and disturbance of organisms.
(see Habitat Degradation and Loss section)
Climate and Atmospheric
Change
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change states "the balance of
evidence suggests a discernible human influence on global climate."
This anthropogenic (human induced) effect is especially important in Atlantic
Canada, where ecosystems such as the Bay of Fundy exist in a delicate balance
that is highly sensitive to changes in the climate system. Climate change
may result in changes to the frequency and intensity of winter storms, droughts,
floods, and alterations in sea surface temperature, as well as increased
vulnerability of communities and habitats to accelerated sea level rise.
Changes in atmospheric ozone may increase the amount of UV-B radiation reaching
land and sea, which may impact diatom species and assemblages that overlay
the mudflats in the basins of the Upper Bay. (see Storm
Surges and Coastal Flooding)
Contamination
Oil refineries, pulp mills, port activities, manufacturing plants, forestry
operations, agriculture, and other industrial activities together release
complex mixtures of heavy metals, chlorinated hydrocarbons, petroleum products
and other chemicals into nearby coastal waters. (see Land-Based
Sources of Marine Pollution).
Mercury
Mercury is a known neurotoxin and can cause developmental and reproductive problems in exposed organisms. Studies have shown that breeding loons in the Bay of Fundy area have among the highest body burden of mercury in North America. Levels of mercury in striped bass in the St. John River are five times higher than what is considered acceptable for human consumption. High levels of mercury have also been reported in tissues of porpoises, seals, fish, and lobsters. One possible source may be the natural mercury content of local coal, which is released into the atmosphere upon incineration. Long-range atmospheric transportation of mercury to the Maritimes is another major source. The average annual mercury deposited in Atlantic Canada from all atmospheric sources is 8.5g per square kilometre.Organochlorines
Organochlorines are chlorinated organic compounds (such as PCB, DDT, dieldrin, etc.) that have been used extensively in the past for a variety of industrial purposes. Dieldrin was used as an agricultural insecticide and along with chlordane was used in the timber manufacturing industry. PCP was used in the timber treatment industry as an antisapstain. DDT was an insecticide used widely in horticulture and agriculture. PCBs were used in the electrical supply industry, principally in transformers and capacitors. Dioxins are produced as by products of a number of industrial, manufacturing and combustion processes. Many of these substances do not break down readily in the environment and are known to bioaccumulate through the food chain. As a result, even though these chemicals are not used in Canada anymore, they continue to persist. As local sources decrease, long-range atmospheric transportation of organochlorines may increase in importance as a source of contamination for the Bay of Fundy. According to recent studies, harbour porpoises in Passamaquoddy Bay and around Grand Mannan carry five times more DDT and three times more PCBs than beluga whales in the St. Lawrence River. DDT and PCBs are known to cause reproductive problems in animals, as well as kidney, liver, and stomach damage.Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a group of over 100 different chemicals that are formed during the incomplete burning of coal, oil and gas, garbage, or other organic substances. Some PAHs are produced naturally (volcanoes, forest fires, etc.); however, most are produced through human activities, such as burning coal and driving cars. A few PAHs are used in medicines or to make dyes, plastics, and pesticides. Some PAHs are carcinogenic and have been identified as a priority concern by groups such as ACAP Saint John and the Global Program of Action in the Gulf of Maine. Non-carcinogenic effects in animals may include reproductive problems, birth defects, and immune deficiencies. PAHs do not dissolve readily in water, and tend to accumulate in sediments or in plant and animal tissue. Thay can also be broken down by microorganisms over a period of weeks or months.Tributyl Tin (TBT)
Tributyl tin is a chemical found in anti-fouling paint that coats the bottom of ships to prevent the growth of organisms like barnacles and algae. TBT is being dubbed the most toxic chemical that man has deliberately introduced in to an aquatic environment. Everytime a ship comes into a harbour it leaves a wake of contamination as it slowly releases TBT molecules into the water. It is found from coast to coast in marine and freshwater systems where there are ships. The first indicator of its toxicity was discovered in dogwhelks where TBT caused serious deformities harming their immune and reproductive systems. Sites tested along Canada's coast showed contamination anywhere from 56% to 100% in some places like Halifax and Sydney. Further studies have shown how the toxin affects mussels, starfish, flatfish and whales. It easily moves up the food chain and studies are underway to determine its impact on human immune and reproductive systems. TBT is toxic in the tiniest amount. Efforts are underway around the world to have the chemical banned by 2008 but even if this happens the problem will still exist where the toxic molecules have settled and could take up to 20 to 30 years before they are gone.
Dredging
Dredging is a concern both in terms of habitat destruction, sediment and
species disruption, and contamination. Dredged material from marine waters
contains a large amount of salt and may contain contaminants. If this material
is disposed of on land, there is concern that groundwater may become contamination
near the disposal site. Material that is dumped in coastal waters can increase
suspended solids in the water column and smother benthic organisms. If the
sediments are contaminated, there is the potential for acute or chronic
toxicity to marine organisms and risks to human health. Saint John Harbour
is dredged annually to maintain water depth for port operation. The dredged
material from this site is disposed of at the Black Point Disposal Site,
located approximately six miles southeast of the harbour.
Ecotourism
Ecotourism activities are becoming increasingly abundant. Major activities
include whale watching, kayaking, hiking, sailing, and beach recreation.
While most of these activities are considered to be environmentally benign
and generally sustainable, their increasing popularity may create stress
on natural resources and ecosystem function. For example, the number of
tour boat operators in the Bay increased from 4 in 1994 to 27 in 1997. Most
of these operate between Grand Manan and Brier Island, at the mouth of the
Bay, where the endangered Right Whale population spends much of its time.
However, in 1997 a voluntary Code of Ethics was developed by marine tour
operators to help reduce impacts on whale populations. Conflicts between
seal culling and ecotourism have also arisen. (see Seals
and Rare and Threatened Species - Marine Mammals)
Erosion
The Bay of Fundy is apparently getting deeper as portions of the bottom
are eroded by strong tidal currents. It is possible that bottom trawling
may be breaking through the thin and fragile gravel sea-floor surface and
facilitating erosion of underlying muds. However, it is also possible that
deepening could be the result of natural processes, as the bay is relatively
young geologically speaking at only 9,000 years or so.
Bay of Fundy coastlines are also under threat from erosion. Waterfront property, archaeological sites, coastal infrastructure, and coastal habitat are just some of the features that may be damaged by wind, waves, and rain.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is the increase in nutrient levels of a particular environment
above what is normally expected. Eutrophication typically occurs when human
activities, such as forestry, agriculture, sewage treatment and urban run-off,
contribute new sources of nutrients into the environment. Excess nutrients
may stimulate the growth of algae and other plants and organisms, which
in turn depletes the level of dissolved oxygen in the water and makes it
difficult for other organisms to "breath." Excess nutrients may
also stimulate the growth of harmful algal blooms in marine waters. Nutrients
from sewage and fertilizer effluents are considered to be the primary cause
of eutrophication in marine waters. Another major source of nutrients to
marine waters is the air deposition of nitrogen. (see Air
Deposition and Harmful Algal Blooms)
Fisheries - Closures
Clam flats
Clam flat closures are a common occurrence in the Bay of Fundy due to concerns of paralytic shellfish poisoning and sewage pollution. Mussel harvesting is permanently closed.Atlantic Salmon
On September 15, 1993, all rivers flowing into the Bay of Fundy were closed to recreational and native Atlantic salmon fisheries. The commercial Atlantic salmon fishery has been closed since the early 1970's. (see Rare and Endangered Species - Fish)
Fisheries - Conflicts
Conflicts have arisen in the past between fixed gear fishers and mobile
gear fishers. More recently, concern has been expressed regarding the effects
of bottom dragging for scallops, sea urchins, and groundfish on non-target
species and benthic habitat. In particular, there is concern about the spread
of dragging activity into areas that were previously unaffected, resulting
in the degradation of these unintentional protected areas. Bottom dragging
occurs regularly over a large portion of the Bay of Fundy.
Fisheries - New
With the collapse of many traditional fisheries, new harvestable species
are being investigated. New fisheries, such as rockweed, sea urchin, sea
cucumber, periwinkle, bloodworm, and krill fisheries, are emerging tentatively
and with varying levels of regulation. Relatively little is known about
these species, their associated harvesting methods, and the impacts that
harvest may have on the ecosystem. There is concern that increased pressure
on lower trophic level species (prey species) may make recovery of the finfish
species that rely on them more difficult. There is also concern that reductions
in these species may disrupt the Bay of Fundy food web. Rockweed beds serve
as habitat for as many as 22 commercial species of fish and their food sources
and act as a major source of nutrients to coastal waters. There is concern
that the ecological function of rockweed, and other "underutilized"
species, may be compromised by commercial harvest.
Fisheries -- Established
Marine fisheries have a long history in the Bay of Fundy and are an important
part of the social, economic, and cultural seascape. Many traditional fisheries
have declined over the past few decades; however, several new fisheries
have emerged. In particular, finfish and high trophic level fisheries (fish
high up in the food web) have tended to decline, while lower trophic level
fisheries (organisms lower in the food web, like krill and shrimp) are being
expanded. There is some concern that fishing at lower trophic levels may
seriously disrupt the marine food web and cause difficulties for organisms
that rely on low trophic level species for food. The major established fisheries
in the Bay of Fundy include lobster, scallops, clams, herring, cod, pollock,
haddock, and flatfish. (see Fisheries - New)
Lobster
Lobster landings have increased dramatically over the past two years and are well above average levels. However, a 1995 review of the Atlantic lobster fishery by the Fisheries Research Conservation Council concluded that the current fishery might be unsustainable. In response, fishermen have been directed to develop new management measures to attempt to achieve a doubling of egg production.Scallops
Catch rates for scallops have increased moderately since 1997, but are still well below the median level for 1980 to present.Clams
There has been a drop in landings for soft-shelled clams primarily due to faecal coliform related beach closures. Harvesting of clams has also been impacted by the occurrence of phytotoxins (such as paralytic shellfish poison).Groundfish
Some concern has been expressed about a shift in groundfish fishing effort from the western portion of NAFO Div. 4X into the Bay of Fundy. This movement of fishing activity from the Scotia shelf towards the Bay of Fundy has led to a steady increase in cod, haddock and pollock landings in the Bay over the past ten years, with landings more than tripling for pollock.
Forestry
Forestry activities such as road building, harvesting, clearing, log transport,
pesticide spraying, and fertilization can have a significant impact or coastal
and marine waters. These activities can lead to increased sedimentation
in rivers and streams, which then travels to the coast and adds to the sediment
load of marine waters. Pesticides and other chemicals applied during forest
management also end up in coastal waters, resulting in contamination. Fertilizers
contribute to nutrient enrichment and potential eutrophication of the marine
environment. (see Eutrophication)
Fossil Sites
The fossil cliffs at Joggins are internationally renowned for the quality
and uniqueness of their vertebrate and other fossils. Although the cliffs
are legally protected by the Special Places Protection Act, there are concerns
that the zone of protection is not adequate and that it is not effectively
publicized or monitored. There is a group currently working to bring the
Joggins Fossil Cliffs site to the point where an application can be made
for UNESCO World Heritage status, but it may take up to 5 years to complete
the application. Other unique sites around the Bay of Fundy include the
Parrsboro Fossil Site, Horton Bluff, and Diligent River. Both fossil and
archaeological sites are non-renewable sources of valuable information,
so coastal erosion is a major concern. (see Archaeology
and Erosion)
Estuaries
As the place where river meets ocean, an estuary is a body of water that acts as an interface between fresh and salt water. Estuaries are brackish in nature and have unique characteristics (salinity and temp) that make them both difficult for organisms to live in (low resident biodiversity) but also an attractive place to feed, hide, and rear young. There are some organisms that have specifically adapted to these conditions, but most organisms in estuaries have fresh or salt-water origins. Many marine species, particularly birds and fish, use estuaries at some time during their life cycle to breed. By providing high nutrient levels and relative shelter from wind and waves, estuaries serve as an ideal environment for the growth of young. Estuaries also perform the valuable ecological functions of filtering pollutants and nutrients from groundwater and protecting the coast from rough seas. In the absence of a clear management regime by federal and provincial agencies, estuaries have not received the attention they deserve relative to their ecological importance. Consequently, estuaries are threatened by coastal development, contamination, and other human impacts. (see Coastal Development and Contamination)Salt Marshes
Dyking, infilling, and construction of barriers to tidal flow have eliminated more than 80% of the saltmarshes that were present in 1604. Most of these original marshes were converted to agricultural land that is still in use today. Only 15% of original salt marshes remain in the Bay of Fundy, Musquash Marsh being one of them. Upstream marshes along the Petitcodiac River near Moncton have been affected by waste dumping, construction of a causeway, and highway development. Champlain Place Mall and other developments in Dieppe sit on infilled marshland. (see Marine Protected Areas)
Harmful Algal Blooms
A red tide caused by the organism Mesodinium rubrum was observed in Passamaquoddy
Bay from early August to mid-September, 1998. Although M. rubrum does not
produce a toxin, mortalities of aquatic organisms may occur through secondary
effects such as asphyxiation as a result of oxygen depletion. For example,
low levels of fish mortalities have been observed when red tides drift through
salmon aquaculture sites. There have also been occasional problems with
blooms of toxic dinoflagellates and other noxious microorganisms; however,
it is uncertain whether these are increasing as a result of human activity
or whether they are just being recorded more effectively. These outbreaks
often result in closures of shellfish beds, reduced marketability of cultured
shellfish, toxic effects on cultured finfish, and periodic human illness.
(see Fisheries - Closures)
Introduced Species
Non-native species may be introduced to the Bay of Fundy through ballast
water exchange, accidental release, or even intentional release. Many introduced
organisms are unable to survive in their new environment, but some species
thrive without natural predation. These invasive species may out-compete
existing species, leading to declines in biodiversity, disruptions in marine
food webs and ecosystem dynamics, and other negative ecological impacts.
Human activities may also be impacted, such as through the clogging of pipes
that has occurred in the Great Lakes as a result of a population explosion
of introduced zebra mussels. (see Ballast Water Exchange)
The European green crab (Carcinus maenas), a voracious predator of clams, oysters, mussels, marine worms, and juvenile crustaceans, has been spreading in the Bay of Fundy during the last few decades. In California, green crab introduction has resulted in the loss of up to 50% of Manila clam stocks. The green crab has also been blamed for the collapse of the soft-shell clam industry in Maine.
The European periwinkle (Littorina littorea) the dominant snail along the coast, is actually a non-indigenous species. It arrived with early settlers to North America, as did many other species. L.littorea has since out competed at least one native snail (Ilyanassa obsoleta) in some places, but since there is no data on marine ecosystems from before the arrival of L. littorea, it's difficult to tell what other effects it has had.
The Japanese shore crab (Hemigrapsus sanguineus), while not yet in the Bay of Fundy, has been making its way up the coast since it was first reported in southern New Jersey in 1988. It is a highly mobile organism in both its adult and larval stages. The Japanese shore crab is similar to the green crab, both in appearance and that they are both voracious predators of young shellfish. What effect they will have on the Bay of Fundy ecosystem is still unclear at this point.
Land-Based Sources
of Marine Pollution
According to Canada's National Programme of Action for the Protection of
the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities, 80% of marine pollution
originates from land-based sources. Many of these are identifiable point
sources, such as industrial effluent and sewage outfalls; however, non-point
sources such as agriculture, forestry, and urban run-off are much harder
to pinpoint and are equally harmful. Land-based pollution, in the form of
nutrient loading, pesticides, and other organic and inorganic contaminants,
has resulted in problems with shellfish habitat contamination and beach
closures. In addition to surface run-off, atmospheric deposition of contaminants
from land-based emission sources is also an issue of concern. (see Air
Deposition, Agriculture, Forestry)
Lighthouses
Lighthouses are an important part of the heritage of the Bay of Fundy, representing
a traditional way of life that is being lost through advances in technology
and de-staffing. In the past, lighthouses were run and taken care of by
lighthouse keepers. However, most of these keepers have now been replaced
by automated systems. As a result, many lighthouses have reached a state
of disrepair and will be downgraded or disposed of in the next few years.
The Canadian Coast Guard has the responsibility for these changes. Fortunately,
some lighthouses properties (including the lighthouses at Cape Enrage, Cape
d'Or, Spencers Island, Five Islands, Walton, and Cape Forchu) are being
purchased and maintained as historic sites by NGO's. The Nova
Scotia Lighthouse Preservation Society and a group in New Brunswick
are the primary NGOs dealing with Lighthouses around the Bay of Fundy.
Marine Debris
Typical ocean litter consists primarily of plastics and styrofoam, as well
as cardboard and paper, glass bottles, metal cans, chemical and paint containers,
condoms, tampon applicators, syringes, etc. Ocean litter spoils the natural
beauty of the coast and creates health and safety issues for local residents
and visitors. It also causes problems for fishermen and boaters who get
debris trapped in their nets or engines. Floating plastic is a direct threat
(through ingestion, asphyxiation, and entanglement) to marine life, including
birds, fish, and whales. Large industrial and commercial debris, such as
abandoned equipment, vehicles, netting, and fish traps or weirs, creates
substantial difficulties for those attempting to clean and restore coastal
habitats.
Marine Protected
Areas (MPAs)
Marine Protected Areas are generally defined as "Any area of intertidal
or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora,
fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law
or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment."
The creation of Marine Protected Areas may serve a variety of purposes,
from the protection of marine species and habitats for research and conservation
to the recognition of culturally significant sites. Several potential MPA
sites have been identified in the Bay of Fundy region, including Musquash
estuary and an offshore site for the protection of the Northern Right Whale
population.
Marine Transportation
Shipping in the Bay of Fundy includes international tanker and container
traffic, coastal shipping, ferries, and cruise vessels. Much of this shipping
is concentrated at the mouth of the Bay, with Saint John, New Brunswick
being the major focal point. The overall impact of marine transportation
is unknown; however, key concerns include vessel collisions with marine
mammals, accidental oil spills and ongoing oil spillage from onloading/offloading
of oil cargo, bilge dumping, ballast water exchange, noise, and other vessel
emissions or sources of contamination. (see Ballast Water
Exchange, Contamination, and Oil
Spills)
Migratory Birds
The Bay of Fundy is renowned for the large numbers of migratory birds that
use its bays, estuaries, and saltmarshes as stopovers during their journey.
The large roosts seen at high-tide are composed of species, including plovers,
turnstones, sandpipers, yellowlegs, snipes, godwits, curlews and phalaropes.
The Bay of Fundy plays host to 75-95% of the world's population of Semipalmated
Sandpipers. Semipalmated Sandpipers feed on mud shrimp (Corophium volutator)
out on the tidal flats, doubling their weight in just a few weeks to prepare
for their long trip to South America. Scientists are concerned that changes
in mudflat composition have resulted in a drastic reduction in the abundance
of these vital mud shrimp. It is suspected that the damming of tidal rivers
may have played a role in the changes in mud composition. (see Barriers
to Rivers and Rare and Threatened Species-Birds)
Issues that have been identified by the Canadian Wildlife Service, who has
responsibility for migratory bird conservation, include control of sea duck
predation at mussel farming operations, localized changes in gull distribution
around fin fish operations, absence of zooplankton in the upper water layers
and resulting loss of staging area for migrating phalaropes, reductions
in the major food source (Corophium volutator) for migrating semipalmated
sandpipers, and the effects of acid rain on water bird populations.
Mining
There has been no significant sea floor mining activity in the Bay of Fundy
to date. However, this may change at any time. Some exploratory titanium
mining has been conducted in Minas Basin. There is also growing commercial
interest in several large fields of submarine sand dunes or waves, heaped
up by the powerful tidal currents. One such area in Scots Bay, southwest
of Cape Split, may contain up to 35 million cubic meters of coarse sand
and fine-grained gravel. Land-based mining operations also continue to exert
influence on coastal waters, at times directing effluents into Bay of Fundy
waters.
Oil and Gas Development
Although two exploratory oil wells were drilled in the 1980's, no oil or
gas extraction has been undertaken in the Bay of Fundy to date. However,
the potential for exploration and extraction remains.
Oil Spills
Although there have been no major oil spills in the Bay of Fundy, there
are frequent small spills from a variety of sources that threaten harbours,
aquaculture sites and seabird colonies in the region. Observations after
some of these small spills indicate that the flora and fauna of the rocky
shores of the outer Bay, where wave action is very intense, would probably
recover quickly from a major spill. However, the impacts of any spilled
oil that penetrates into the inner Bay and fouls salt marshes and mudflats
are likely to be much more serious and longer lasting.
Pulp and Paper Mills
Five pulp and paper mills discharge effluent and wood waste into major estuaries
of the Bay of Fundy. In 1991, Lake Utopia pulp mill situated in the L'Etang
Estuary was prosecuted for violations of provincial and federal environmental
requirements. In 1998, the Irving Pulp and Paper mill at Reversing Falls
was fined $50,000 for releasing effluent into the St. John River and for
not reporting the spill in a timely manner. Last January, however, Irving
unveiled a $300 million system complete with newly developed reverse osmosis
technology to improve their production process. Other mills on the Bay of
Fundy include Irving Paper in Saint John, Minas Basin P&P, and CKF at
Hantsport. These are monitored for regulatory purposes.
Radioactivity
The Point Lepreau Nuclear Generating System (opened in 1982) discharges
radioactivity (primarily tritium) into the marine environment as well as
into the atmosphere. This radioactivity remains closely monitored through
the Point Lepreau Environmental Monitoring Program. Studies show that tritium
levels in the immediate vicinity of the site are slightly elevated; however,
counts in other locations remain close to background levels. In the past,
operational problems that have resulted in temporary shutdown of the reactor
have heightened public concern about the potential for accidental releases.
Marine Mammals
The Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis) was declared endangered in 1990 as a result of critically low population numbers. Historically, Right Whales were almost hunted to extinction through commercial whaling, and ever since they have had a hard time recovering. Ongoing threats for Right Whales include the noise and disturbance caused by human activities, pollution from oil and other toxic substances, and degradation of inshore habitat. Since Right Whales are surface feeders, they are also particularly threatened by collisions with ships. Over half of the remaining 300 Right Whales inhabit the Bay of Fundy in the summer months. With such a limited number left, the survival of each Right Whale is extremely important, and each birth is also quite significant. On a positive note, there were at least 30 recorded Right Whale births this year, a dramatic increase from the previous several years. (see Ecotourism)The Western Atlantic Harbour Porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) was declared threatened in 1991. A large number of harbour porpoises are caught and killed by fishing gear and nets each year; however, a warming of the waters south-east of New Brunswick could be the cause of the decrease in harbour porpoises in this area. In addition, the Bay of Fundy and Gulf of Maine are quite polluted by organochlorines, and this could be causing reproductive problems for harbour porpoises. The harbour porpoise has been protected under the Canada Fisheries Act since 1982. (see Contamination)
The Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus) was designated a species of special concern in 1987. Populations were historically reduced through whaling; however, since a moratorium on Fin Whale exploitation was established by the International Whaling Commission, populations have shown signs of recovery. Today, depletion of capelin (an important prey species for Fin Whales) stocks and chemical pollutants may be negatively impacting these whales.
The Western North Atlantic Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) was designated a species of special concern in 1985. Overexploitation of Humpback Whales greatly reduced their numbers prior to 1960, and ongoing exploitation of their prey continues to negatively impact this species. Depletion of capelin is of particular concern. Since large trawlers became a part of commercial fishing operations in the 1970s, Humpbacks have been caught occasionally in fishing nets. The Humpback Whale populations in the North Atlantic have been protected by the International Whaling Commission since 1955.
Reptiles
Leatherback turtles (Dermochelys coriacea) was declared endangered in 1981. Although leatherback turtles nest in tropical and subtropical areas, they do travel widely the rest of the year and are often found in temperate waters. Entanglement in fishing gear is considered a major threat to this species. While not all entangled leatherbacks drown, there is an appreciable amount of adult, subadult and likely juvenile mortality associated with incidental capture of sea turtles. In New Brunswick, leatherback turtles have been protected under the provincial Endangered Species Act since 1996.
Fish
Atlantic salmon populations in most of the rivers draining into the Bay of Fundy are in extremely fragile states and, as a result, the Bay of Fundy Atlantic salmon has recently been added to the endangered species list. The Department of Fisheries and Oceans can find salmon in only 19 of 33 rivers of the inner Bay of Fundy. Returning adults are providing a small fraction of the required egg depositions and wild juvenile numbers are low. The cause of their decline is not certain, although there is evidence that they are 'disappearing' while at sea. The Atlantic Salmon Federation is currently conducting studies to determine why the species is not recovering as initially hoped.
Birds
The Piping Plover was declared endangered in 1985. The 1996 International Piping Plover Census counted 5,913 adult Piping Plovers in the world. From this total, 422 adults (7 % of the world's population) used the beaches of Atlantic Canada in the summer to raise their young. This number is down from the 1991 census count of 509 adults. Human disturbance of nesting Piping Plover is one of the main causes for their decline.Vast flocks of Red-Necked Phalaropes, such as were seen regularly in late summer/early fall in Head Harbour Passage (Passamaquoddy region) in 1970s, have not been seen there since the mid-1980s. Their disappearance from Head Harbour Passage may reflect the disappearance of their copepod prey (pelagic invertebrates) from the surface layers of the sea in this location. Changes in copepod distribution may have resulted from natural causes and Red-Necked Phalaropes are still found in deeper waters.
Invertebrates
On some mudflats, numbers of the burrowing amphipod, Corophium volutator, have plummeted from about 30,000 per square metre 15 years ago, to almost none today. These amphipods are an important prey species for many migratory birds, including Semi-Palmated Sandpipers. There is some concern that changes in amphipod distribution may effect the feeding behaviour of these endangered birds. (see Sediment Changes and Sedimentation)
Sea Level Rise (see
Storm Surges and Coastal Flooding)
Seals
Conflicts have arisen between seals and fishers, as seals open lobster trap
doors or destroy traps to get at bait. They swim freely in and out of herring
weirs, tearing holes in twine and driving herring away. Seals have also
been accused of stealing bait from longlines and damaging aquaculture nets.
Permits to kill problem seals have been issued to full-time fishermen by
DFO, but these have not been issued to fish farmers. Culling of seals has
created some conflict with the tourism industry. (see Ecotourism)
Sediment Changes
and Sedimentation
Significant changes in the sediment character of intertidal zones are being
reflected in changing behaviour or success of migratory birds such as the
semipalmated sandpiper. Changes in mud composition may be impacting organisms
that live in the mud, such as Corophium volutator, which in turn may be
impacting their main predators, the shore birds. This transformation of
mud composition may be related to changes in water flow due to the construction
of river and tidal barriers or it may be related to a gradual rise in sea
level. (see Sea Level Rise, Tidal
Barriers)
Sedimentation resulting from aquaculture cage fallout (undigested food, waste, etc.) may be a significant problem in some Fundy estuaries. Land-based activities, such as agriculture, forestry, and coastal development, act as major sources of sediment to rivers and coastal waters, which in turn increases the cloudiness of the water column, makes photosynthesis difficult for marine plants, and smothers benthic organisms. Excess sediments may also be deposited on ecologically sensitive sites or other areas that create an inconvenience to humans. However, excess sediment may also be deposited in previously sediment-deprived locations, which may allow for the creation of new habitat.
Sewage Disposal
Untreated and improperly collected wastewater is a threat to human health
via contamination of beaches, drinking water, and shellfish harvesting areas.
A major hotspot of sewage contamination is Saint John Harbour, which treats
only 50% of its domestic wastewater; however, Saint John has initiated an
ongoing harbour clean-up project to assist in dealing with this problem.
The Bear River sewage treatment plant, on the other hand, has turned its
self-sustaining facility into a tourist attraction.
Species Composition
There appears to be a change in fish species composition away from the dominant
cod, halibut and haddock of recent decades towards a greater number of sharks
and rays. Whether this change is permanent or temporary, and the implications
of such a change, are still unclear.
Storm Surges and
Coastal Flooding
A storm surge is a essentially big pile of water that gets pushed up ahead
of a storm by high winds much like water pushed up the bow of an ocean-going
vessel. Large positive storm surges at times of significant high tides can
cause coastal flooding. Such events are usually associated with large offshore
waves and high surf in the coastal zone. Surges with accompanying high-energy
storm waves can lead to significant coastal erosion and damage to coastal
infrastructure and habitat. On 5 October 1869, a storm with hurricane force
winds travelled up the Bay of Fundy causing a 2 metre tidal surge resulting
in extensive flooding. The lowlands at the head of the Bay of Fundy and
other low lying areas continue to be quite susceptible to flooding by storm
surges.
It is likely that the
sea-level rise associated with ocean warming and thermal expansion (see
Climate Change) will heighten the frequency and
intensity of storm surges, increasing flooding risks over time. This will
have significant impact on populations living in coastal regions, as coastal
storm surges become an increasing threat to life and property.
Surveillance and
Enforcement
Historically, surveillance, monitoring, and enforcement have been carried
out on a sectoral basis (e.g., fisheries, shipping). However, as ocean uses
have developed, intensified and spread over larger areas, conflicts between
users have increased. As a result, the need for more effective and integrated
approach to compliance and enforcement has become apparent.
Submarine Cables
The greatest threat to submarine cables, which carry more than 75 percent
of overseas voice, fax, data and internet traffic, comes from fishing activity.
On average a fishing vessel damages a submarine cable somewhere in the world
more than once a week. The laying of submarine cables, in turn, may also
damage sensitive benthic habitat. There is currently one active submarine
cable running from Nova Scotia to New Brunswick through the Bay of Fundy.
There may be other inactive cables resting on the sea floor.
Tidal Power Development
Many proposals to take advantage of the Bay of Fundy's unique tidal activity
have been put forward in the past. Aside from a small pilot tidal power
generating station in Annapolis Basin (opened in 1985), these proposals
have all been shelved; however, there is growing concern that this issue
will re-emerge in the near future.
Whales (see Rare and Threatened Species - marine mammals)
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